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Nonostante Ethereum prende in prestito diverse idee che sono gia' state provate e testate per circa un lustro in criptovalute piu' anziane come Bitcoin, in diversi aspetti Ethereum diverge dalla modalita' piu' comune di maneggiare certe caratteristiche del protocollo, e ci sono anche molte istanze in cui Ethereum e' stata costretta a sviluppare approcci economici totalmente innovativi perche' offre funzionalita' che non sono offerte da altri sistemi esistenti.
Lo scopo di questo documento e' quello di illustrare tutte le decisioni non ovvie ed in alcuni casi controverse che sono state fatte durante il processo di costruzione del protocollo Ethereum, e allo stesso tempo mostrare i rischi che il nostro approccio implica, e possibili alternative.
Tutti questi principi sono seguiti nello sviluppo di Ethereum, ma non sono assoluti; in alcuni casi, il desiderio di ridurre il tempo di sviluppo o quello di non apportare cambiamenti bitcoin generare monete atree radicali tutti in una volta ci convincono a rimandarne alcuni, anche se potenzialmente potrebbero essere utili per una release futura ad esempio, Ethereum 1.
Questa sezione fornisce una descrizione di alcuni dei cambiamenti al protocollo della blockchain che sono stati fatti su Ethereum, compreso come funzionani i blocchi e le transazioni, come vengono serializzati e immagazzinati i dati, e il meccanismo dietro agli account.
Bitcoin, allo stesso modo di molti dei suoi derivati, immagazzina i dettagli dei saldi dei conti degli utenti in una struttura basata su outputs di transazione non spesi UTXOs: Il "saldo" di un utente nel sistema e' percio' il valore bitcoin generare monete atree di un set di moneta per il quale un utente possiede una chiave privata in grado di produrre una firma valida.
Ethereum scarta questo schema a favore di un approccio piu' semplice: Se l'account ricevente ha del codice, il codice viene eseguito, l'immagazzinamento interno puo' anche cambiare, o il codice puo' persino creare messaggi aggiuntivi ad altri account che condocuno a ulteriori addebbitamenti e accreditamenti. We have decided that, particularly because we are dealing with dapps containing arbitrary state and code, the benefits of accounts massively outweigh the alternatives.
Additionally, in the spirit of the We Have No Features principle, we note that if people really do care about privacy then mixers and coinjoin can be built via signed-data-packet protocols inside of contracts. One weakness of the account paradigm is that in order to prevent replay attacks, every transaction must have a "nonce", such that bitcoin generare monete atree account keeps bitcoin generare monete atree of the nonces used and only accepts bitcoin generare monete atree transaction if its nonce is 1 after the last nonce used.
This means that even no-longer-used accounts can never be pruned from the account state. A simple solution to this problem is to require transactions to contain a block number, making them un-replayable after some period of time, and reset nonces once every period. Miners or other users will need to "ping" unused accounts in order to delete them from bitcoin generare monete atree state, as it would be too expensive to do a full sweep as part of the blockchain protocol itself.
We did not go with this mechanism only to speed up development for 1. L'albero di Merkle Patricia, concepito precedentemente da Alan Reiner e implementato nel protocollo Ripple, e' la struttura di dati primaria di Ethereum, e viene usato per immagazzinare tutti gli stati degli account, e anche le transazioni e le ricevute in ogni blocco.
L'MPT e' la combinazione di un Albero di Merkle e l'albero di Patriciae prende in prestito da elementi di entrambi per creare una struttura che ha entrambe le seguenti caratteristiche:.
This gives us a way of providing an efficient, easily updateable, "fingerprint" bitcoin generare monete atree our entire state tree. The Ethereum MPT is formally described here: RLP "recursive length bitcoin generare monete atree encoding is the main serialization format used in Ethereum, and is used everywhere - for blocks, transactions, account state data and wire protocol messages.
RLP is formally described here: RLP is intended to be a highly minimalistic serialization format; its sole purpose is to store nested arrays of bytes. Unlike protobufBSON and other existing solutions, RLP does not attempt to define any specific data types such as booleans, floats, doubles or even integers; instead, it simply exists to store structure, in the form of nested arrays, and leaves it up bitcoin generare monete atree the protocol to determine the meaning of the arrays.
The alternative to RLP would have been using an existing algorithm such as protobuf or BSON; however, we prefer RLP because of 1 simplicity of implementation, and 2 guaranteed absolute byte-perfect consistency. By developing a protocol in-house we can be assured that it is designed with these goals in mind this is a general principle that applies also to other parts of the code, eg.
Note that bencode, used by BitTorrent, may have provided a passable alternative for RLP, although its use of decimal encoding for lengths makes it slightly suboptimal compared to the binary RLP. The wire protocol and the database both use a custom compression algorithm to store data. The algorithm can best be described as run-length-encoding zeroes and leaving other values as they are, with the exception of a few special cases for common values like sha3 ''.
However, a change was made recently where all of these special cases were removed, making Ethereum data structures much bulkier by default, instead adding the data saving functionality to a layer outside the blockchain protocol by putting it on the wire protocol and seamlessly inserting it into users' database implementations.
This adds modularity, simplifying the consensus layer, and also allows continued upgrades to the compression algorithm to be deployed relatively easily eg. For an introduction, see http: Every block bitcoin generare monete atree in the Ethereum blockchain contains pointers to three tries: A receipt for a transaction is an RLP-encoded data structure:. There is also a bloom in the block header, which is the OR of all of the blooms for the transactions in the block.
The purpose of this construction is to make the Ethereum protocol light-client friendly in as many ways as possible. In Ethereum, a light client can be viewed as bitcoin generare monete atree client that downloads block headers by default, and verifies only a small portion of what needs to be verified, using a DHT as a database for trie nodes in place of its local hard drive.
Some use cases include:. The first protocol is useful to simply check up on state, and the second in consumer-merchant scenarios to check that a transaction was validated.
The third protocol allows Ethereum light clients to collectively validate blocks with a very low degree of trust. In Bitcoin, for example, a miner can create a block that gives the miner an excessive amount of transaction fees, and there would be no way for light nodes to detect this themselves, or upon seeing an honest full node detect it verify a proof of invalidity.
In Ethereum, if a block is invalid, it must contain an invalid state transition at some index, and so a light client that happens to be verifying that index can see that something is wrong, either because the proof step does not check out, or because data is unavailable, and that client can then raise the alarm.
The fourth protocol is useful in cases where a dapp wants to keep track of some kind of events that need to be efficiently verifiable, but which do not need to be part of the permanent state; an example is a decentralized bitcoin generare monete atree logging trades or a wallet logging transactions note that the light client protocol will need to be augmented with header-level coinbase and uncle checks for this to work bitcoin generare monete atree with mining accounts.
In Bitcoin terminology, LOG can be viewed as a pure "proof of publication" opcode. The motivation behind GHOST is that blockchains with fast confirmation times currently suffer from reduced security due to a high stale rate - because blocks take a certain time to propagate through the network, if miner A mines a block and then miner B happens to mine another block before miner A's block propagates to B, miner B's block will end up wasted "stale" and will not contribute to network security.
Furthermore, there is a centralization issue: Thus, if the block interval bitcoin generare monete atree short enough for the stale rate to be high, A will be substantially more efficient simply by virtue of its size. With these two effects combined, blockchains which produce blocks quickly are very likely to lead to one mining pool having a large enough percentage of the network hashpower to have de facto control over the mining process.
As described by Sompolinsky and Zohar, GHOST solves the first bitcoin generare monete atree of network security loss by including stale blocks in the calculation of which chain is the "longest"; that is to say, not just the parent and further ancestors of a block, but also the stale descendants of the block's ancestor in Ethereum jargon, "uncles" are added to the calculation of which block has the largest total proof of work backing it.
To solve the second issue of centralization bias, we adopt a different strategy: Transaction fees, however, are not awarded to uncles or nephews. In Ethereum, stale block can only be included as an uncle by up to the seventh-generation descendant of one of its direct siblings, and not any block with a more distant relation.
This was done bitcoin generare monete atree several reasons. First, unlimited GHOST would include too many complications into the calculation of which uncles for a given block are valid.
Second, unlimited uncle incentivization as used in Ethereum bitcoin generare monete atree the incentive for a miner to mine on the main chain and not the chain of a public attacker.
Finally, calculations show that restricting to seven levels provides most of the desired effect without many of the negative consequences. We have already determined that our current algorithm is highly suboptimal on low volatility and non-exploitability, and at the very least we plan to switch the timestamps compares to be the parent and grandparent, so that miners only have the incentive to modify timestamps if they are mining two blocks in a row.
Another more powerful formula with simulations is located at https: Whereas all transactions in Bitcoin are roughly the same, and thus their cost to the network can be modeled to a single unit, transactions in Ethereum are more complex, and so a transaction fee system needs to take into account many ingredients, including cost of bandwidth, cost of storage and cost of computation. Of particular importance is the fact that the Ethereum programming language is Turing-complete, and so transactions may use bandwidth, storage and computation in arbitrary quantities, and the latter may end up being used in quantities that due to the halting problem cannot even be reliably predicted ahead of time.
Preventing denial-of-service attacks via infinite loops is a key objective. The other important part of the gas mechanism is the economics of the gas price itself.
The default approach, used in Bitcoin, is to have purely voluntary fees, relying on miners to act as the gatekeepers and set dynamic minimums; the equivalent in Ethereum would be allowing transaction senders to set arbitrary gas costs. This approach has been received very favorably in the Bitcoin community particularly because it is "market-based", allowing supply and demand between miners and transaction senders determine the price.
The problem with this line of reasoning is, however, that transaction processing is not a market; although it is intuitively attractive to construe transaction processing as a service that the miner is offering to the sender, in reality every transaction that a miner includes will need to be processed by every node in the network, so the vast majority of the cost of transaction processing is borne by third parties and not the miner that is making the decision of whether or not to include it.
Hence, tragedy-of-the-commons problems are very likely to occur. Currently, due to a lack of clear information about how miners will behave in reality, we are going with a bitcoin generare monete atree simple approach: The hope is that in the future we bitcoin generare monete atree be able to soft-fork this into a more bitcoin generare monete atree algorithm.
The Ethereum virtual machine is the engine in which transaction code gets executed, and is the core differentiating feature between Ethereum and other systems.
Design goals in the EVM include:. The function and purpose of some opcodes in the Bitcoin generare monete atree is obvious, however other opcodes are less so.
Some particular justifications are given below:. Principi Il processo di design del protocollo Ethereum segue un certo numero di principi: Modello di complessita' a "sandwich": Laddove la complessita' e' inevitabile, dovrebbe essere racconta all'interno dei "middle layers" del protocollo, che bitcoin generare monete atree fanno parte del cuore del sistema di consenso ma anche che bitcoin generare monete atree sono visti dall'utente finale - i compilatori del linguaggio di alto livello, la serializzazione degli argomenti e gli script di deserializzazione, i modelli delle strutture di immagazzinamento dei dati, l'interfaccia di immagazzinamento leveldb e il protocollo di connessione, etc.
Eppure, questa preferenza non e' assoluta. Questo e' simile al principio di "neutralita' della rete". Invece noi crediamo che su Ethereum si debba fortemente bitcoin generare monete atree quell'approccio di porre costi di transazione in tal modo affinche' siano approssivamente compatibili ad un incentivo, cosicche' gli utenti che utilizzano la blockchain a dismisura internalizzino il costo delle loro attivita' ovvero, una bitcoin generare monete atree Pigouviana.
Un esempio di come tale principio viene seguito e' la scelta di un LOG opcode come modo di fornire informazioni alle dapps, in contrapposizione al semplicemnte loggare tutte le transazioni e i messaggi come e' stato suggerito internamente in precedenza - il concetto di "messaggio" e' in verita' un agglomerato di tanti bitcoin generare monete atree, compresa la "funzione di chiamata" e "evento che interessa ad osservatori esterni" ed vale la pena separare i due.
Un esempio di cio' e' la mancanza di una caratteristica di "locktime" all'interno di Ethereum simile a quella di Bitcoin. Tale caratteristica infatti puo' 'essere simulata mediante un protocollo nel quale gli utenti inviano "pacchetti firmati di dati" e bitcoin generare monete atree pacchetti di dati possono essere letti da un contratto specializzato che li elabora ed esegue qualche funzione predefinita se il pacchetto di dati e' - ovviamente in un senso specificato dal contratto - valido.
Nessuna avversione al rischio: Il protocollo a livello della Blockchain Questa sezione fornisce una descrizione di alcuni dei cambiamenti al protocollo della blockchain che sono stati fatti su Ethereum, compreso come funzionani i blocchi e le transazioni, come vengono serializzati e immagazzinati i dati, e il meccanismo dietro agli account.
Accounts e non UTXOs Bitcoin, allo stesso modo di molti dei suoi derivati, immagazzina i dettagli dei saldi dei conti degli utenti in una struttura basata su outputs di transazione non spesi UTXOs: Ogni input di riferimento deve essere valido, e non ancora speso La transazione deve possedere una firma che collega il proprietario dell'input ad ogni input Il valore totale degli input deve essere uguale o superiore al valore totale degli outputs [to do] Il "saldo" di un utente nel sistema e' percio' il valore totale di un set di moneta per il quale un utente possiede una chiave privata in grado di produrre una firma valida.
I benefici di un sistema UTXOs sono che: Si ha un grado piu' elevato di privacy: Questo va bene per quanto riguarda le valute, ma si applica meno alle dapps, dato che le dapps spesso devono tenere traccia di stati interconnessi di utenti e potrebbe non esistere uno schema di partizionamento tanto semplice come in una valuta.
Paradigmi potenziali di scalabilita': Le UTXOs sono piu' compatibili a livello teorico con alcuni tipi di paradigmi di scalabilita', dato che possiamo fare affidamento solo sul fatto che il proprietario di alcune bitcoin generare monete atree mantenga una prova di possesso di Merkle, e anche se tutti compreso il proprietario decidono di dimenticarsi quei dati a quel punto solo il proprietario e' danneggiato.
In un paradigma a conti, ognuno che perde la porzione di un albero di Merkle corrispondente a un account renderebbe impossibile processare messaggi che hanno effetto su tutti gli account, compreso il mandarlo. Ad ogni modo, esistono paradigmi di scalabilita' non-UTXO-dipendenti.
I benefici degli accounts sono che si hanno: Grandi risparmi di spazio: In reality savings are not nearly this massive because accounts need to be stored in a Patricia tree see below but they are nevertheless large.
Additionally, transactions can be smaller eg. Although it is possible to shoehorn arbitrary decentralized applications into a UTXO paradigm, essentially by giving scripts the ability to restrict what kinds of UTXO a given UTXO can be spent to, and requiring spends to include Merkle tree proofs of change-of-application-state-root that scripts evaluate, such a paradigm is much more complicated and ugly than just using accounts.
Referenze constanti per i client leggeri: In a UTXO paradigm, the references change with each transaction, a particularly burdensome problem for long-running dapps that try to use the above mentioned state-root-in-UTXO propagation mechanism. Alberi di Merkle Patricia L'albero di Merkle Patricia, concepito precedentemente da Bitcoin generare monete atree Reiner e implementato nel protocollo Ripple, e' la struttura di dati primaria di Ethereum, e viene usato per immagazzinare tutti gli stati degli account, e anche le transazioni e le ricevute in ogni blocco.